The Development of Masculinity in Ulwaluko kwa Xhosa
South Africa · CPD points & talks · Psychologists
In the amaXhosa culture, the identification of manhood occurs when certain attributes are possessed. For them, manhood is symbolised in undergoing ulwaluko kwa Xhosa; a traditional male initiation. Highlighting the significance of culture and tradition in the socialisation of African masculinities, this traditional circumcision and initiation into manhood is practiced by about 80-90% of amaXhosa males from the Eastern Cape province. Just like hegemonic masculinity, the practice of ulwaluko is learned culturally through the process of socialisation, intentional teaching or personal experience and specifies which behaviours are desirable and forbidden for members of the culture.
Ulwaluko kwa Xhosa signals the complete transition from childhood to adulthood for the initiate. For the Xhosa male to become a man, the amaXhosa initiation practice of ulwaluko has to be fully undergone for a period of about a month in seclusion. The event is so significant for the construction of manhood that amaXhosa males who have not gone to the mountain are said to be non-deserving of ubudoda (manhood). And with that, regardless of a male’s age, one is not considered an adult unless they have been traditionally circumcised (surgical removal of the foreskin) and initiated.
Ulwaluko attempts to promote some effective forms of manhood. Undergoing ulwaluko means that initiates are put in a social setting that promotes unanimity and instills the attitude of reciprocity and mutual care among men. As the elderly teach them valuable life lessons at initiation school, their fostered unification of communal accomplishment of manhood forges long-lasting relationships that are unified by loyalty. These teachings of faithfulness and dependability are observed in the manifestations of loyalty both during initiation school and after leaving the initiation school camps. Positives associated with ulwaluko are noticeable in the stressed lessons concerning good moral values, self-respect and responsibility. With its efforts to create a bond and unity within the participating men and inherently enhancing self-esteem, ulwaluko kwa Xhosa contributes a collective or communal demeanor in continuing cultural traditions. Manhood’s symbolism is also found in the encouragement of each initiate to be altruistic towards each other - essentially benefiting the culture and society as a whole. AmaXhosa men have expressed how ulwaluko is a dominant part in their lives and how hegemony is expressed through the power of elderly men who have the authority to teach and decide on the duration of the ritual and punishment of non-conformity. Although ulwaluko kwa Xhosa is a sacred rite that is hidden from the views and opinions of the world and outsiders, public debate and academic discourse have been welcomed by the controversies surrounding the practice.
In some cases ulwaluko subjects its initiates to severe psychological, emotional and sexual issues. For instance, traditional initiations are a cause for concern because of botched initiation procedures that cause negative life changing and health implications. Catastrophic consequences that disrupt ulwaluko induce pressure on boys to conform to ideals that are set out. With the self-pride of remaining strong and successfully completing the initiation process, initiates are normalised into believing that their masculinity is constructed in this manner. In so doing, hegemonic masculinity subordinates and marginalises “other” masculinities. The hierarchical ordering of masculinity in this context induces pressure on boys to live up to standards that are stated. Ulwaluko is reflected on to see what constitutes being a man. And with that, ulwaluko is constructed through a hegemonic course which can be seen in the way in which amaXhosa males who have not been initiated (regardless of age) are considered as boys, and as such puts them at the bottom of the social hierarchy. The sense that there is a particular or an “ideal ulwaluko initiated man” supports the hegemonic course of having a dominant version of manhood that is a rival of other forms of masculinity. Although the institution of ulwaluko attempts to promote effective masculinities, it unintentionally promotes hegemonic masculinity in the process.
As a researcher, the conception of hegemonic masculinity can be used to understand men in a cultural perspective. Because it legitimises the domination of women by men, hegemonic masculinity in the South African context can be used to explain men’s problematic behaviours such as their domination, violence against women and rape. Hegemonic masculinity is equally individualised and communal, having its foundations in the fundamental idea that it is a culturally ideal form. The term may also be described as the established values of men in power. These values are established over women and some men in order to systematise society in gender disparate ways. From this point of view, the term hegemonic masculinity is defined by the difference from the expected dominant ideals of masculinity.
Although ulwaluko is a coming-of-age educational institution with a strong socio-cultural significance aiming to teach initiates about good conduct, social responsibilities, respect and ubuntu, there is a possibility that it may do some harm. The sometimes-harsh nature of the ritual could lead to the development of serious psychological and social issues that are later on expressed in their social environment post initiation school. Consequently, initiates may develop dominant ideals of hegemonic masculinity and harmful notions that perpetuate issues such as gender inequality, social pressure and sexual entitlement as a result of attempting to embody the set “ideal” standards of masculinity.
Calabash · South AfricaCalabash Articles · South AfricaCalabash Partners · South AfricaCalabash Contributors · South AfricaCalabash Speakers · South AfricaCalabash Talks · South AfricaCalabash Sign up · South AfricaCalabash Sign in · South AfricaAllied Health Professionals CPD talks · South AfricaCouples CPD talks · South AfricaMood Disorders CPD talks · South AfricaArticle · Cleaning during COVID-19 Pandemic · South AfricaArticle · SAPC Dialogues: Challenges and Innovations · South AfricaArticle · Helpful Lifestyle Changes for Patients with Tinnitus · South AfricaPlay Therapy CPD talks · South AfricaSexual abuse CPD talks · South AfricaBrain Injury CPD talks · South AfricaTalk · Psychoanalytic Couple Therapy · South AfricaTalk · Building Brains: Sub-Cortical structures of the brain · South AfricaTalk · Dialectical Behaviour Therapy: States of mind · South AfricaTerms of Use · South AfricaUploading a Talk · South AfricaPrivacy Policy · South AfricaCalabash · AustraliaCalabash Articles · AustraliaCalabash Partners · AustraliaCalabash Contributors · AustraliaCalabash Speakers · AustraliaCalabash Talks · AustraliaCalabash Sign up · AustraliaCalabash Sign in · AustraliaCouples CPD talks · AustraliaDialectical Behavioural Therapy CPD talks · AustraliaClinical Issues CPD talks · AustraliaArticle · Do functional addicts exist? · AustraliaArticle · Tidbits on Treating the Dizzy Patient · AustraliaArticle · Confidentiality and Consent when working with Adolescents · AustraliaFairy Tales CPD talks · AustraliaNarcissism CPD talks · AustraliaSpirituality CPD talks · AustraliaTalk · Adolescent Depression: Diagnosis, risk factors, & treatment · AustraliaTalk · Perspectives on the Oedipus Complex: Freud, Klein & Lacan · AustraliaTalk · Speech-Sound Disorders: Differential diagnosis & treatment · AustraliaHow It Works · AustraliaUploading a Talk · AustraliaAbout Contributors · AustraliaCalabash · New ZealandCalabash Articles · New ZealandCalabash Partners · New ZealandCalabash Contributors · New ZealandCalabash Speakers · New ZealandCalabash Talks · New ZealandCalabash Sign up · New ZealandCalabash Sign in · New ZealandAustralian Counselling Association CPD talks · New ZealandPsychodynamic Therapy CPD talks · New ZealandTherapy Modalities CPD talks · New ZealandArticle · SAPC Dialogues: Introduction to Public Mental Health · New ZealandArticle · Napping in Adults · New ZealandArticle · Trauma and Recovery · New ZealandEmotional Intelligence CPD talks · New ZealandSpirituality CPD talks · New ZealandEnuresis & Encopresis CPD talks · New ZealandTalk · Introduction to Schema Therapy : Part 1 - core childhood needs & maladaptive schemas · New ZealandTalk · Motor learning principles & feeding · New ZealandTalk · The Developmental Hierarchy of School Readiness · New ZealandTerms of Use · New ZealandPrivacy Policy · New ZealandAbout Calabash · New ZealandCalabash · United KingdomCalabash Articles · United KingdomCalabash Partners · United KingdomCalabash Contributors · United KingdomCalabash Speakers · United KingdomCalabash Talks · United KingdomCalabash Sign up · United KingdomCalabash Sign in · United KingdomPersonality CPD talks · United KingdomAustralian Counselling Association CPD talks · United KingdomImago Relationship Therapy CPD talks · United KingdomArticle · Is Psychotherapy a Spiritual Endeavor? · United KingdomArticle · Diffusion Tensor Imaging · United KingdomArticle · Screens in Therapy · United Kingdom CPD talks · United KingdomInfants CPD talks · United KingdomMusic Therapy CPD talks · United KingdomTalk · On Villains and Victims in Couple Attachments · United KingdomTalk · Working with Emotions, Life Events, and Underlying Beliefs - Stage 3 & 4 of cognitive behavioural therapy for Eating Disorders (CBT-E) · United KingdomTalk · The Origins of Mentalising & Implications for Attachment, Personality & Psychotherapy - Part 1 · United KingdomFrequently Asked Questions · United KingdomHow It Works · United KingdomAbout Partners · United KingdomCalabash · United StatesCalabash Articles · United StatesCalabash Partners · United StatesCalabash Contributors · United StatesCalabash Speakers · United StatesCalabash Talks · United StatesCalabash Sign up · United StatesCalabash Sign in · United StatesPersonality CPD talks · United StatesChildren, Teens & Families CPD talks · United StatesImago Relationship Therapy CPD talks · United StatesArticle · Therapist Accountability in Work with Children · United StatesArticle · Tidbits on Treating the Dizzy Patient · United StatesArticle · Tips for New Therapists by Dr. Anusha Lachman · United States CPD talks · United States CPD talks · United StatesCleft CPD talks · United StatesTalk · Current Trends in Childhood Psychiatric Diagnosis · United StatesTalk · Codependency: Identifying & addressing an underlying, untreated addiction in our clients · United StatesTalk · Working Therapeutically with Infants, Young Children & their Parents · United StatesFrequently Asked Questions · United StatesAbout Partners · United StatesUploading a Talk · United StatesCalabash · CanadaCalabash Articles · CanadaCalabash Partners · CanadaCalabash Contributors · CanadaCalabash Speakers · CanadaCalabash Talks · CanadaCalabash Sign up · CanadaCalabash Sign in · CanadaNeurodiversity CPD talks · CanadaAustralian Counselling Association CPD talks · CanadaCouples CPD talks · CanadaArticle · An Intro to Marketing for Healthcare Professionals · CanadaArticle · Useful Resources for Neuroanatomy · CanadaArticle · Clefts: A mom's perspective on what professionals should know · CanadaPersonality Disorders CPD talks · Canadaself-help CPD talks · CanadaNote Taking CPD talks · CanadaTalk · CBT with Children & Adolescents: Social Anxiety Disorder · CanadaTalk · Growing a Capacity for Self-reflective Practice amongst Educators, Allied Professionals and Parents in the Early Years · CanadaTalk · Career Psychology: An introduction · CanadaAbout Partners · CanadaFrequently Asked Questions · CanadaAbout Calabash · Canada
Psychologist in Sydney